The Marina district was built on filled land made of a mixture of sand, dirt, rubble, waste, and other materials containing a high percentage of groundwater. Some of the fill was rubble discarded after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake but most was sand and debris laid down in preparation for the 1915 Panama-Pacific International Exposition, a celebration of San Francisco's ability to rebound after its terrible catastrophe in 1906.[15] After the Exposition, apartment buildings were erected on the filled land. In the 1989 earthquake, the water-saturated unconsolidated mud and sand suffered liquefaction, and the earthquake's vertical shock waves rippled the ground more severely.[8]