The cardiovascular system, which comprises conductive tissues and electrically active cardiac cells, is vulnerable to external electromagnetic fields (Jeong et al., 2005; Wu et al., 2016). It has also been suggested that the autonomic nervous system, melatonin secretion from the pineal gland, and heart rate variability (HRV) are sensitive to external changes in electromagnetic field intensity (Palmer et al., 2006; Anand et al., 2022; Zilli Vieira et al., 2022; Zilli Vieira et al., 2023).
Epidemiological studies have identified significant associations between GMD and increased risks of total and cardiovascular mortality, with some studies suggesting correlations with specific outcomes, such as stroke and myocardial infarction (MI), particularly in Western countries (Stoupel et al., 2011; Feigin et al., 2014; Caswell et al., 2016; Zilli Vieira et al., 2019). Additionally, GMD-related health outcomes are not only influenced by the magnitude of the GMD. They are also influenced by the duration of exposure and the moving averages (MAs) of GMD (Anand et al., 2022; Schiff et al., 2022). These previous studies suggest that the health impacts of GMD may appear immediately after GMD exposure or may be delayed owing to differences in cumulative exposure duration or physiological lag effects. Therefore, there is a need for analytical approaches that incorporate such temporal dimensions.