Julian’s first act as emperor was to preside over the Christian funeral of Constantius and he personally escorted the body to the Church of the Apostles. Then, he got down to business. He rejected the style of administration of Constantine who had “abandoned the traditions of the past” and began to clean house in the inefficient, corrupt, and expensive royal court as well as the burdensome and corrupt bureaucracy of civic officials, secret agents, and so on. Thousands of servants, eunuchs and superfluous officials were dismissed. He set up a court to deal with the corruption and a number of high-ranking officials of Constantius were found guilty of crimes and executed. Julian was conspicuously absent from any executions which indicated that he did not like the practice even if he found it necessary.
Julian made no attempt to turn himself into an absolute autocrat which is where things become interesting. He returned authority to cities in an effort to reduce imperial involvement in local affairs (downsizing big government). Any city lands owned by the imperial government was returned to them and city council members were compelled to resume civic authority. Additionally, the tribute in gold that was traditionally owed by each city to the imperium was made voluntary, not mandatory. All arrears of land taxes were cancelled. This was a very popular move because the corruption of the imperial tax system had been the biggest complaint of the people. Julian thought that the role of the empire should be only administration of the law and defense of the borders, while the cities would be autonomous administrations.
In replacing any truly necessary political and civil administrators, Julian chose from the intellectual and professional classes rather then from the wealthy elite. In 362, he chose a Frankish general as consul making clear the fact that the support of the western army was important to the empire. It was a popular move in the west and within the army itself, but the wealthy elite of Constantinople were shocked.
In Antioch, Julian discovered that wealthy merchants were causing food problems by hoarding to raise prices. He brought the matter to the attention of the local city council, but when they did nothing, he took matters into his own hands and set the prices and personally imported grain from Egypt to relieve the crisis. Surprisingly, Ammianus was critical of this saying that Julian was driven by a “thirst for popularity.”
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Julian seems like a really decent sort, what we would nowadays call a “bleeding-heart liberal.” Well, being something of that sort myself, I understand the sentiments; I was also raised in a devout protestant family with strong Calvinistic values of hard work and compassion for those less fortunate. But I have also learned by hard experience that human beings are not, in fact, born equal in any sense of the word. Not only is everyone genetically different in all respects (within a normative distribution curve) including intelligence and abilities, it seems that the ideals of democracy, i.e. liberty, equality, fraternity, are just propagandistic slogans created to dazzle the masses while oligarchies continue to rule by guile and deception, wearing masks of nobility exactly as described by Machiavelli. What has been most difficult for me to come to terms with is the fact that human beings are not just stunningly receptive to being dominated and controlled by the simplest – or most outrageous – deceptions, they actually want it! The masses of humanity, vis a vis their elite rulers, are much like an abused wife who refuses to think badly of her husband no matter how brutal he is toward her and her children!
As the great Historian of Religion, Mircea Eliade pointed out, the study of history, through its various disciplines, offers a view of mankind that is almost insupportable. The rapacious movements of hungry tribes, invading and conquering and destroying in the darkness of prehistory; the barbarian invaders of the civilized world; the bloodbaths of the crusades of Catholic Europe against the "infidels" of the Middle East; the stalking "noonday terror" of the Inquisition where martyrs quenched the flames with their blood; and the raging holocaust of modern genocide. Wars, famine, pestilence; all produce an intolerable sense of indefensibility against what Mircea Eliade calls the Terror of History.
When man contemplates history, AS IT IS, he is forced to realize that he is in the iron grip of an existence that seems to have no real care or concern for his pain and suffering. Over and over again, the same sufferings fall upon mankind multiplied millions upon millions of times over millennia. The totality of human suffering is a dreadful thing. I could write until the end of the world using oceans of ink and forests of paper, and never fully convey this terrible condition in which mankind finds his existence.
The beast of arbitrary calamity has always been with us. For as long as human hearts have pumped hot blood through their too-fragile bodies and glowed with the inexpressible sweetness of life and yearning for all that is good and right and loving, the sneering, stalking, drooling and scheming beast of "real life" has licked its lips in anticipation of its next feast of terror and suffering. Since the beginning of time, this mystery of the estate of man, this Curse of Cain has existed. And, since the Ancient of Days, the cry has been: "My punishment is greater than I can bear!"
But if you find yourself saying this, you are "alienated," antisocial, and accused by those who accept the status quo of being incapable of finding any meaning in life. You are just simply not "with the program”; you are not an Authoritarian. If you point out that the actions of our leaders do not match their words, that there is something screamingly amiss in our world, you are “alienated” and you suffer from a “personal bias” that is not “in synch” with reality. After all, our world is just hunky dory; two billion people meeting their deaths in a century of wars and famines is just "the cost of doing business" in this reality. (This is the socio-political view, not the view of cognitive or social sciences though there are scientists within the fields that have been corrupted to support such views, including psychologists who actually write papers supporting torture as an effective method of gathering information – sick bastards, all of them.)
Most of our problems as a species come from an inability to agree on our conclusions which is generally based on a misinterpretation of the basic events of life. For this reason we are always fighting over symbolism and definitions, the very things that are supposed to help us understand each other better. It seems that the ability to see reality without any illusions is a very difficult perspective to acquire. It consists of viewing the world without the denial that plagues our understanding of basic events, as opposed to the illusory values imposed on it by society. Society has a very dim view of alienation. The fact is, however, that where alienation occurs, feedback loops exist between the individual resistance to a system and the system's response. Overall this resistance is very costly for the system.
A good example of this are the varying persecutions which have been instituted to chase down relatively harmless people chosen as scapegoats for the cause. Any time one or another group is being labeled as "alienated," you can be sure that it is a smokescreen for other activities. And when there is smoke, there is usually a war; if there's a war, someone is making money churning out weapons or medical care or news or insurance against fear in another form.
The questions "what is an alienated person?" and "what is the philosophical significance of alienation" are two entirely different orders of questions, and a failure to recognize this fact breeds confusion.
First of all, we want to exclude what may be truly "pathological alienation," which expresses itself as destructive acts undertaken against the shortcomings of our culture. These destructive acts can include felonious behavior as well as self-destructive processes, including self-medicated escape into drugs and alcohol, magical thinking, etc. Here, we are interested in alienation as a process of expanding our objective perception of reality. Do we view reality as a Cartoon World where all the characters suffer all kinds of dreadful experiences which are instantly erased from view and memory in the next frame, or, have we acquired a more spiritually adult perception of the realities of life that tell us that when a huge boulder is dropped on the character, he will be crushed and will not reappear in the next frame without a wrinkle or a bruise. Are we living our lives as Comic Book Characters, or as Response-Able perceivers of a broader reality?
The answer to the first question: what is an alienated person amounts to an existential judgment. How a person becomes "alienated" can simply be a matter of historical fact. We can learn the facts of that person's life, and we can learn what that person thinks from what they say or write. Based on this information, we may decide that they are alienated because they have suffered trauma. Or we may determine that they are alienated because they see more clearly the objective reality and do not forget from one minute to the next what they have seen. The answer to "what is the philosophical significance?" is a proposition of VALUE; in other words, a spiritual judgment. What alienation ultimately means in this sense can only be deduced in terms of the record of the inner experiences of the soul wrestling with the crises of fate.
Cognitive science suggests that childhood dissociation is a technique that unhappy people develop to adapt to difficult situations. And, as it happens, the tendency and ability to dissociate differs from person to person in our standard deviation curve. That is, at one end, there are people that dissociate all the time; we would call them delusional. On the other end, there are people who, no matter how terrible things are, still avoid dissociation. In the middle, where the vast majority fall, dissociation is common and ubiquitous.
So, in a world of cruelty and suffering, people who are not alienated in the terms as I am discussing it, might very well be viewing reality in a dissociated state: dissociated from what IS, the objective world. Whether they are adhering to the status quo as a positive experience, or any other reality that does not take into account the broadest range of observable facts, such individuals may be operating in pathological states of dissociation. In this sense, the idea that "God is in heaven and all is right with the world" is a fantasy.A very simple way of looking at it is in terms of what is popularly called Stockholm Syndrome. A person who is NOT alienated from a world run amok, a system that is clearly operating based on manipulation and terror tactics has dissociated and identified with the oppressor; he or she has "sold out" in order to survive.
The term, Stockholm Syndrome, was coined in the early 70's to describe the puzzling reactions of four bank employees to their captors. On August 23, 1973, three women and one man were taken hostage in one of the largest banks in Stockholm. They were held for six days by two ex-convicts who threatened their lives but also showed them kindness. To the world's surprise, all of the hostages strongly resisted the government's efforts to rescue them and were quite eager to defend their captors. Indeed, several months after the hostages were saved by the police, they still had warm feelings for the men who threatened their lives. Two of the women eventually got engaged to the captors. Psychologist Dee Graham has theorized that Stockholm Syndrome occurs on a societal level. Since our culture is patriarchal, she believes that all women suffer from it - to widely varying degrees, of course. She has expanded on her theories in Loving to Survive: Sexual Terror, Men's Violence, and Women's Lives, which is well worth reading.
When there is a socially imposed mandate to think well of their leaders and view the world in a positive light, even in the face of evidence to the contrary, people find it necessary to become highly attuned to the approval or disapproval of the social norms that are created and propagated by the rulers and their elite supporters who have the resources to suppress most contrary perspectives. As a result, the masses of authoritarians are motivated to learn how to think only in terms of social norms, and learn that it is dangerouse – even life-threatening – to honestly examine their own, honest experiences. As victims of Societal Stockholm Syndrome, we are encouraged to develop psychological characteristics pleasing to the system. These include: dependency, lack of initiative, inability to act, decide, think; strategies for staying alive, including denial, attentiveness to the system's demands, wants, and expressions of approval of the system itself. We are taught to develop fondness for the system accompanied by fear of interference by anyone who challenges the system's perspective.Most of all, we are conditioned to be overwhelmingly grateful to the system for giving us life. We focus on the system's kindnesses, not its acts of brutality. Denial of terror and anger, and the perception of the system as omnipotent keep us psychologically attached to the System. High anxiety functions to keep us from seeing available options. .Victims have to concentrate on survival, requiring avoidance of direct, honest reaction to destructive treatment. Psychophysical stress responses develop and the infection is passed on to the next generation. We’ve already seen this in Constantine and his psychologically disturbed children. There is not enough data to determine if they were born that way, as psychopaths, or if they were just damaged. But we suspect that either way, genetics played some part. So the dynamics of Stockholm Syndrome in relation to Authoritarians directly addresses what was going on in the late Roman Empire.
Julian the Apostate was an “alienated” person in the context of his times. Such persons are generally exceptional and eccentric and Julian was certainly that. Marcus Aurelius was his model emperor and there are many parallels between them.
Now we come to the problem: Julian described the ideal ruler (based on his study of Marcus Aurelius) as being essentially
primus inter pares ("first among equals"), operating under the same laws as his subjects. While in Constantinople therefore it was not strange to see Julian frequently active in the Senate, participating in debates and making speeches, placing himself at the level of the other members of the Senate. Julian was also an ascetic. Since the masses had become accustomed to being brutalized by their rulers who distanced themselves by taking on the role of gods who were very distant from mere mortals, they could not accept an emperor who was a good and decent man. Even his friends – high intellectuals – were divided about his practice of talking to his subjects on an equal basis. Ammianus Marcellinus thought it was foolish vanity and that Julian’s “desire for popularity often led him to converse with unworthy persons.”
The Authoritarian personality is well-known among researchers for excusing the corruption of the elite by accepting that those in authority must be “different”, that their “burdens of rule” mean that they have special stresses requiring fulfillment of important needs such as extreme luxury, self-indulgence, sexual rapacity and even pedophilia. The recent scandals in our own world that expose these things and are then ignored by the people who continue to support the most depraved and vicious examples of anti-social human-looking creatures are evidence of exactly this sort of thing.
Thus it was that Julian’s subjects wanted an all-powerful Emperor who was so high above them that he could behave as Constantine and Constantius II had. Ammianus actually approved of Constantius’ public behavior:
He always maintained the dignity of imperial majesty, and his greatness and lofty spirit disdained the favout of the populace. He was exceedingly sparing in confering the higher dignitaries, with few exceptions allowing no innovations in the way of additions to the administrative offices; and he never let the military lift their heads too high.... That no one ever saw him wipe his mouth or nose in public, or spit, or turn his face in either direction... (21.16)
…though he described him as a moral degenerate.